–	GREAT OLD ROMAN GODS AND THE GREEK CONNECTION 
–	These gods hold the destiny of the state. They are spectacular and powerful, remote from the lives of the ordinary person. Their origins are often minor. Many of the Greek gods are simply appropriated into the Roman pantheon and given Roman names. 
–	MARS* - Originally the god of ripening grain, he becomes the god of war Ares*. 
–	JUNO* - Originally Uni, she comes to Rome with Jupiter and becomes Hera*. 
–	MINERVA* - Originally Menerva, she takes over the functions of the Greek Athena. 

–	APOLLO* - He doesn't even change his name. 
–	VENUS* - Originally a goddess of flowers she takes Aphrodite's* functions and becomes far greater. Her powers are the generative force of the universe, in charge of fecundity and presiding over the destiny of Rome. She is often called "greater" than Jupiter because she creates all things. 
–	CERES* - The ancient Roman goddess of agriculture takes on all the attributes of the Greek Demeter*. She is served by Greek women speaking Greek. 
–	MERCURY* - From the Greek Hermes*. 

–	NEPTUNE* - Originally a god of fresh water, he takes over from Poseidon*. 
–	BACCHUS* - Brought back by veterans of eastern campaigns, Dionysus*. 
–	GREATEST ROMAN GOD 
–	JUPITER* - Originally he was the god of oak forests, thunder and rain, and maintainer of peace. It is he who presides over tribal loyalties and oaths. He can be found in various forms: 
–	Jupiter Lapis - as a stone or meteorite 
–	Jupiter Pluvius - bringer of rain 
–	Jupiter Fulminator - hurling lightning 
–	Jupiter Tonans - thunder 

–	He gradually takes on characteristics of the Etruscan Tinia* (sky god) and the Greek Zeus*. Finally he becomes Jupiter Optimus Maximus* the best and greatest of all gods, protector of the state and people, supreme legislator of their destinies. 
–	Although he is made up of attributes from many gods, he has his own peculiar nature that is essentially Roman. He is, in one sense, the only god of the Romans. The others serve as mere adornments for his throne and derive their power from his. 
–	He is rigid, remote, concerned with law and morality, justice and truth.

•	HOW ROMAN THEATRE DIFFERS FROM GREEK 
•	The Greeks had introduced theatre into their religious festivals as part of a whole range of contests. These contests were religious in that they celebrated human relationship with the gods. 
•	The Romans introduce theatre into their festivals to provide entertainment for the Roman mobs. The state religion has no desire or need for a contest and there is no attempt to provide playwrights or actors with prizes. Theatre is strictly a commercial entertainment for the populace. 

–	LUDI- THE FESTIVALS IN ROME 
–	There are Ludi for every occasion: funerals, votives, dedications, victories, and of course, in honor of various gods. Not all Ludi include theatre as a regular part of their festivities, but the major ones do. The year begins in March. Saturnalia comes in December . 
•	In Greece the great plays had been written by prominent citizens. In Rome plays are written by slaves and emancipated slaves to produce an income and build a productive career. Greek actors were honored by the state, employed as ambassadors and members of a religious guild. Roman have no standing in a society

•	.The Greek productions were paid for by the state and produced for the special event. Actors are skilled entertainers, able to excel in rhetorical and oratorical skills, dance and pantomime. They might also be musicians, or be accompanied by musicians. An actor who is highly skilled might be able to buy his freedom and become a producer himself. The profession is definitely upwardly mobile, at least in aspirations. 

•	Roman Theatre Begins 
•	It is here, near the end of the First Punic War, that we find the first Roman theatre productions. The earliest theatrical writer we know anything of is Livius Adronicus*, but he remains only a name. He translates Greek comedy and tragedy for production in the festivals but none of his work survives. Latin language is just beginning to establish literary standards and guidelines. This problem of developing a literary style for emerging languages will become even more important in later periods and languages. . 

•	By the end of the Second Punic War, however, we have Plautus. He is the first playwright whose plays we have copies of and, like Livius Andronicus*, we know he is also an actor, director, and manager of a successful theatre troupe. 
•	It is with Roman comedy that we come to familiar ground. Totally unlike the Old Greek comedy, it is domestic comedy: sexual romps, deceptions and hilarious confusions. We can find direct counterparts today, on any television sitcom. 

•	Roman Writers c.275 BCE - c.110 BCE 
•	During The Era Of Senate Supremacy 
•	Livius Adronicus, Lucius* c. 284-204 BCE 
•	He is a Greek slave from Tarentum. After he is freed he teaches school and translates Homer into Latin. He is regarded as the founder of Roman literary drama. 

•	Ennius, Quintus 239-169 BCE Roman poet and playwright. He will be called the "Father of Latin Poetry". We have extensive fragments of his work. 
•	Titus Maccius Plautus (c. 250-184 BCE) is born in Umbria. We know very little about him other than he is an actor, producer and dramatist, and, he makes a living from his plays. Plautus plays are set in some Greek city, often in Athens. The setting is vague and the characters, although usually with Greek names, are distinctly Roman in outlook. 

•	His influence (together with that of Terence*) extends down through modern times either by direct imitation of particular plays or adaptations of his dramatic techniques. 
•	We don't know how many plays Plautus* wrote and produced but over 130 are attributed to him. Twenty-one plays survive, although most of them suffer from some missing lines and puzzling constructions. The plays have complicated plots, strongly marked characters, lots of love-making, revelry, trickery, debauchery, songs, puns and topical allusions. Think of the Marx brothers and you will have a good grip on Plautus. 

•	The productions are professionally mounted, complete with scenery, costumes and masks. Plays are written to be sold. The colors of the costumes tell the nature of the characters: old men wear white; young men wear purple; parasites (the clever man who lives off others) wear grey; and courtesans (hired female companions) wear yellow. The costumes in the works of both Plautus and Terence* are short garments loosely based on Greek clothes for those comedies remained set in Greece (fabula palliata). Later authors change the setting of the plays to Rome (fabula togata) and base their costumes on the Roman dress. 

•	The masks* are another informative visual element. They are made in one piece, usually of linen, covering the whole head, including hair. The color of the hair reveals information too: white tells of old age; black shows youth; red is reserved for slaves (no doubt from the Gauls and Celts). There are typical masks for the standard characters, although it is difficult to be sure whether those used in comedy are the same as those which will soon come to be used in the farces. Masks for female characters and young men tend to be more natural. Those for the stereotyped characters are highly exaggerated. 

–	These masks and the characters they represent are worth more than a passing note. The characters are prehistoric comic types and in Rome they take on the basic forms in which they will appear down to the present day. 
•	The scenery used on these temporary stages is less well known. The plays all take place in the street of a city. There are usually three doorways up stage leading to three different houses or two houses and a street. Some times there are five doorways with the extreme right and left leading to other streets. This street location will last as a comic setting into the Renaissance. 

•	MIME - 
•	Mimesare a well known Greek form, but when they appear in Rome they seem quite different. We first hear of them in 212 BCE in Rome. These are short comic pieces used as tragedy intermission and afterpiece replacements for farces. They include women, use no masks and have elements of indecency. This makee it a Roman favorite. The mimes use much the same buffoon characters as the comedy and farce but they are improvised. 

•	Rome And The Civil Wars 
•	ca. 110 BCE - 27 BCE 
•	After the wars with Carthage are over, Rome turns its military attention to the Eastern end of the Mediterranean. Rome increases its manufacturing and raw materials pours in from all over the growing empire. Public works expand and great stone bridges, aqueducts, drainage canals and paved roads spread out in networks linking major communities throughout Italy. But Rome has yet to build a single permanent theatre. 

•	The political climate is changing as well. Still a republic in name, the government rests in the hands of fewer and fewer senators. Revolution is side-stepped only by the murder of opposing leaders. Opposition concerns opposing view points on morals and philosophy as well as questions of power. 
•	The power struggle between Scipio and Cato reveals some significant insights into the social forces at work. Scipio grants a number of countries in Greece complete independence for their help in defeating the Macedonians. 

•	It looks as though Greek culture will be blended into the Roman world in peace and harmony. Cato is furious, he feels the only good foreigner is a dead foreigner (or a slave) and that "decadent" Greek culture is ruining basic Roman values. 
•	THE STRUGGLES FOR POWER 
•	Cato bides his time and then gets the Senate to demand an accounting of all this captured wealth. There is a bitter power struggle over a period of years and when the dust finally clears, Cato has won and the cultural views of Scipio go down in defeat along with his power and influence. 

•	One of the by products of Cato's success is the final destruction of the city Carthage which had dared to resume a trading empire. Their libraries are sacked and scattered, not a single book survives. The city is razed, plowed under and salt is sown in the soil. The Roman view has become one of total despotism and rule with an iron hand. There is little left of Roman virtus, decency, sobriety and courage. "Virtue" has become bloodthirsty and destructive. 

•	ROMAN LEADERS DURING THE CIVIL WARS c.110 BCE - 27 BCE 
•	DATES BCE	LEADER	EVENTS	
•	c.155-86	Marius: barbarian Cimbri and Teutones repulsed in north	
•	138-78	Sulla	social war in Italy,	
•	86	Sulla	takes Athens,	
•	82	Sulla	dictatorship of Sulla	
•	c.115-53	Crassus*		
•	73-71	slave revolt led by Spartacus	
•	106-48	Pompey*		

•	67-62	Pompey	subjugates Syria	
•	60	(Crassus, Pompey, Caesar)	first triumvirate 
•	58-51	Caesar conquers Gaul	
•	53	Crassus and seven legions lost	
•	49	Caesar made dictator	
•	100-44	Julius Caesar		
•	48	Caesar defeats Pompey	
•	48-45	Caesar campaigns in Egypt, Asia Minor, Africa and Spain	
•	44	Caesar	assassinated	
•	c.82-30	Mark Antony		

•	43	(Antony, Octavian, Lepidus)	second triumvirate formed	
•	42		Battle of Philippi, Brutus dies	
•	63-CE14	Octavian (Agustus)		
•	31	Augustus	battle of Actium, Antony and Cleopatra. defeated	
•	27	Octavian	founds principate and takes the name "Augustus"	

•	Various Roman patricians attempt land reform to break up the vast holdings of the rich and provide land for small farmers and discharged or retired soldiers. The attempts usually end with hired mobs attacking the reformers in the streets and leaving them beaten to death. The Senate treats reformers as they had the city of Carthage, total annihilation. Corruption flourishs and Rome is a city for sale. Again it is successful military leaders who leads Rome down the path to dictatorship.